On-line and in situ biosensors for monitoring environmental pollution. Mol. 83, 277281. MAbs 3, 107110. Genetics 184, 917. (2015). 18, 459479. Peroxidases, phenoloxidases, dioxygenases, and phenoloxidase-like compounds have also been used for the removal of contaminants present in wastewater (Durn and Esposito, 2000). Yeast expression systems for industrial biotechnology, in Gene Expression Systems in Fungi: Advancements and Applications, Part of the Series Fungal Biology, eds M. Schmoll and C. Dattenbck (New York City, NY: Springer International Publishing), 227237. Lett. Formation of Se (0) nanoparticles by Duganella sp. In the future, breads and pastas of the better quality can be obtained in less time. Int. Acta 568, 200210. Methanogenic Archaea, such as Methanosarcina barkeri, M. frisius, and Methanobacterium formicicum, were also identified in anaerobic digestions (Godon et al., 1997; Satpathy et al., 2016). Accessibility StatementFor more information contact us atinfo@libretexts.orgor check out our status page at https://status.libretexts.org. This is a challenge to be faced by Technological Microbiology in the coming years. The applications are: 1. The mode of action of Bacillus thuringiensis endotoxins. (2016). As a result, protein-polysaccharide vaccines induce immunological memory, a protection that is longer lasting than that induced by the use of simple polysaccharide antigens (Knuf et al., 2011; Frenck and Yeh, 2012; Pichichero, 2013). The great diversity of molecules produced by filamentous fungi justifies the exploration of these microorganisms, and therefore, the development of production systems in bioreactors has been encouraged. Samuel, D. (1996). doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2005.07.035, Davies, K. G., Rowe, J., Manzanilla-Lpez, R., and Opperman, C. H. (2011). Recently, Ling et al. (2005). Thus, these vaccines often require the co-administration of efficient adjuvants to activate and modulate immune responses (Reed et al., 2009; Schmidt et al., 2016). The use of recombinant microbial cells has allowed large-scale production of a large number of products of pharmaceutical interest, such as hormones, anticoagulants, high-value proteins, antibodies or antigens, and others. (2016). Bioresour. This alternative has been successfully applied in several regions of the world (e.g., Mohiddin et al., 2016; Setha et al., 2016), and many Bti-based commercial products have been introduced to the market, although some strains of A. aegypti have already shown resistance to Bt toxins (Paris et al., 2011, 2012; Wu et al., 2016). In this case, proteins function as carriers for capsular polysaccharides, which induce T-cell dependent antibody responses and B-cell differentiation in plasma cells and long-term memory. However, production in yeasts, such as S. cerevisiae and Pichia pastoris, is generally required when the target protein cannot be produced in a soluble form in a prokaryotic system, when it is rich in disulfide bonds, or when a specific PTM, essential for the biological activity of the protein, cannot be artificially created from the purified product (Jenkins, 2007; Demain and Vaishnav, 2009). Pediatrics 102, 3. doi: 10.1542/peds.102.3.531, Timur, S., Haghighi, B., Tkac, J., Pazarhoglu, N., Telefoncu, A., and Gorton, L. (2007). Robinson, D., and Medlock, N. (2005). Res. FDA (1982). Sci. The miRNA-RISC complex then binds to mRNA, inhibiting translation. Oil Industry 6. Intell. 1. Eng. Modification of genetic components of bacteria and manipulation of enzymatic action offer dramatic prospects in dairy industry. Cellulases and pectinases, used especially in juice clarification and viscosity reduction, have also been easily recovered from cultures of filamentous fungi that are efficient in the degradation of plant biomass, such as Cladosporium sphaerospermum, Penicillium chrysogenum (Andersen et al., 2016), and Trichoderma viride (Ismail et al., 2016). doi: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2005.10.016, Hassen, A., Belguith, K., Jedidi, N., Cherif, A., Cherif, M., and Boudabous, A. This technique consists of the construction of recombinant microbial strains that contain a reporter gene (lux, GFP, or lacZ), i.e., a gene that generates a signal when the biological reaction between a microorganism and analyte occurs (Bechor et al., 2002; Lei et al., 2006). Filamentous fungi, used for centuries in traditional Chinese medicine, have also been evaluated for the potential production of biopharmaceuticals. J. Med. Int. Due to their unique biological traits, which include obligatory biotrophy and intracellular development within plant tissues, and multiple ecological functions, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMFs; which are also thought to have helped plants conquer terrestrial environments) have aroused agronomic interests with the aim of sustainable production with low chemical consumption (Lanfranco et al., 2016). Science 219, 632637. doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2009.02.017, Valamoti, S. M., Mangafa, M., Koukouli-Chrysanthaki, C. H., and Malamidou, D. (2007). However, the bioprospection and characterization of these microorganisms, associated with the most diverse plant species, is aimed not only at obtaining strains of agronomic importance but also at the identification of species that produce metabolites with potential for the synthesis of antibiotics (e.g., Ma et al., 2016), as well as potential for obtaining biotechnologically important chemicals. Extremophiles and biotechnology: current uses and prospects. Biosurfactants have been the subject of an impressive amount of research efforts, both by academia as by the industry. The result of this phenomenon is the increase in the number of probiotic foods available on the market, including a rapidly emerging variety of non-dairy probiotic beverages (Enujiugha and Badejo, 2017). These biosensors showed high specificity for the detection of heavy metals (Kim K. R. et al., 2016). Authors Periasamy Anbu 1 , Subash C B Gopinath 2 , Bidur Prasad Chaulagain 3 , Thean-Hock Tang 4 , Marimuthu Citartan 4 Affiliations Adv. Proc. Pest Manag. Biodeter. Nature 499, 431437. 28, 8399. Studies have also shown that live vaccines induce non-specific immunity, conferring protection beyond the target pathogen (e.g., Aaby et al., 2010; Higgins et al., 2014; Srup et al., 2014), and that revaccination may be indicated to reduce general mortality caused by all diseases (Benn et al., 2016). Technol. Compost Sci. Biofilm processes in biologically active carbon water purification. The expectation is that, in the future, at least 25% of all bioenergy can originate from biogas (Holm-Nielsen et al., 2009), and therefore, studies that seek to optimize the methanogenesis process or describe the structure of microbial communities have been encouraged (e.g., Ennouri et al., 2016; Mulat et al., 2016; Suksong et al., 2016). Proc. Biosimilar, Biobetter and next generation therapeutic antibodies. Bior. (C) DNA vaccines carrying plasmids containing genes encoding immunogenic antigens. U.S.A. 101, 1759317598. Sens. Pharmaceutical Industry 4. Gao, C., Ma, C., and Xu, P. (2011). Biodegr. There's a new discipline in town: genomics, a new field of science that analyzes and compares the complete genome (genetic material of an organism) of organisms or a large number of genes in a simultaneous fashion. J. Eng. 35, 2004. doi: 10.1590/S1517-83822004000200013, Frenck, R. W., and Yeh, S. (2012). The presence of these enzymes in activated sludge and in other aerobic degradation processes is important for the continuous removal of the fat layers formed on the surface of aerated tanks to allow oxygen transport (Hasan et al., 2006). 24, 13631382. Biofuels 5:41. doi: 10.1186/1754-6834-5-41, Woese, C. R., and Fox, G. E. (1977). The class of biodegradable biopolymers of major interest is the polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), and the best known among these are poly(beta-hydroxybutyrate; PHB), poly(beta-hydroxyvalerate; PHV), and poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-valerate; PHB-V), the latter being commercially known as Biopol. Biosens. Carbohydrate vaccines: developing sweet solutions to sticky situations? 5, 953965. (2004). 93, 125130. Seed coating with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi as an ecotechnological approach for sustainable agricultural production of common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Several fungi pathogenic of insects are also being used as control agents, including Beauveria, Metarhizium, and Paecilomyces. Endophytic fungi such as Metarhizium anisopliae and C. gloeosporioides (Gangadevi and Muthumary, 2008; Liu et al., 2009) were found to be efficient in the synthesis of Taxol, being a viable alternative to obtain this antineoplastic. Genetic improvement, as well as the genetic manipulation of cells and the heterologous expression of genes, is expected to help increase the enzymatic biosynthesis in microorganisms of interest, or even to contribute to the development of microorganism biofactories for important enzymes not only for food or industry but also for environmental applications, thereby expanding alternatives for the elimination of the wastes that have historically accumulated in soils and watercourses. Many factors determine the microbial community present during composting, but under aerobic conditions, temperature is the main factor determining not only the microbial types but also the species diversity and metabolic rate (Hassen et al., 2001). Adv. Med. Technol. Process Biochem. These antibodies have also been used for the treatment of infectious diseases. doi: 10.5433/1679-0375.2011v32n2p213, Mitragotri, S., Burke, P. A., and Langer, R. (2014). doi: 10.1016/j.it.2008.09.006, Rillig, M. C., Sosa-Hernndez, M. A., Roy, J., Aguilar-Trigueros, C. A., Vlyi, K., and Lehmann, A. Improvement of enzyme activity, stability and selectivity via immobilization techniques. Res. Hazard. The HGH gene was cloned from a cDNA library and inserted into E. coli cells by cloning it into a bacterial vector. Microorganisms are the most biodiverse class, leading us to believe that the emergence and spread of new human and/or agricultural pathogens may shift from a current critical situation, aggravated by globalization, to a recurrent situation at various points in the future. Genetically engineered wine yeast produces a high concentration of L-lactic acid of extremely high optical purity. doi: 10.1021/ac9805201, Nabel, G. J. Plant Sci. 2.1. When genomics and transcriptomics are applied to entire microbial communities, we use the terms metagenomics and metatranscriptomics, respectively. 12, 1819. 70, 41404145. Summary report of the experiments conducted at Pouilly-le-Fort, near Melun, on the anthrax vaccination, 1881. Fortunately, Kayla recovered fully within a few weeks and did not suffer from the long-term symptoms of post-treatment Lyme disease syndrome (PTLDS), which affects 1020% of Lyme disease patients. 18, 423430. Different substrates and starter inocula govern microbial community structures in biogas reactors. doi: 10.3109/09637486.2012.746288, Satpathy, P., Steinigeweg, S., Cypionka, H., and Engelen, B. In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimate that antibiotic-resistant bacteria infect more than two million people annually (Nizet, 2015). The versatility of these microbes has enhanced the study and application of them in biotechnology, industry, and medical field. doi: 10.1007/s12010-014-1146-1, Fynan, E. F., Wwbster, R. G., Fuller, D. H., Haynes, J. R., Santoro, J. C., and Robinson, H. L. (1993). 37, 106126. Watson and Cricks identification of the structure of DNA in 1953 was the seminal event in the field of genetic engineering. Sci. (1994). Re-evaluation of the life-cycle of the nematode-parasitic bacterium Pasteuria penetrans in root-knot nematodes. doi: 10.1080/10643389.2015.1061884, Zhang, X., Tervo, C. J., and Reed, J. L. (2016). Quim. Adv. Technol. Application of a statistical design to the optimization of culture medium for -amylase production by Aspergillus niger ATCC 16404 grown on orange waste powder. israelensis. Metab. Cellulolytic and xylanolytic activities of common indoor fungi. doi: 10.1039/9781849732765-00227, Anupama, and Ravindra, P. (2000). 82, 438449. CPR bacteria have small genomes and unusual ribosomal compositions, in addition to lacking numerous biosynthetic pathways (Brown et al., 2015), whereas DPANN has been defined as a function of the metabolic capacity (Rinke et al., 2013; Castelle et al., 2015). Since the 1970s, there has been a veritable explosion in scientists ability to manipulate DNA in ways that have revolutionized the fields of biology, medicine, diagnostics, forensics, and industrial manufacturing. doi: 10.3126/ijasbt.v4i2.15103, Abdel-Gawad, K. M., Hifney, A. F., Fawzy, M. A., and Gomaa, M. (2017). Sci. Several transgenic species expressing Bt protein crystals, such as tomato, tobacco, and corn, have been cultivated worldwide because they have been successful in preventing the spread of caterpillars, especially Lepidoptera (Khan et al., 2016). Classic methods of studying gene function involved searching for the genes responsible for a given phenotype. Trends Microbiol. Microorganisms have also been potentially explored for the production of a new generation of biofuels (Liao et al., 2016). Biopharm. PLoS Negl. Res. (2012). Microbial production of scent and flavour compounds. Antiquity 81, 5461. 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Many bacterial strains of Bacillus, Hydrogenomonas, Methanomonas, Methylomonas, and Pseudomonas have been used as substrate for the production of S on an industrial scale because these bacteria can contain approximately 80% crude protein in the total dry weight. Cell Fact. 627, 126140. Res. Sci. 363:fnw134. First, acting as starters in fermentations (in this case, GMOs or engineered microorganisms are not allowed). Phylogenetic structure of the prokaryotic domain: the primary kingdoms. Health 79, 320328. Med. The first indication of wine production comes from the presence of tartaric acid in an old jar, also dated to 54005000 BC, at the Neolithic site of Tepe in Mesopotamia (McGovern et al., 1996) and from grape juice residues, found in Dikili Tash in Greece and dated to 5000 BC (Valamoti et al., 2007). (2016). These antibodies can also be obtained directly from memory B cells of viral-infected patients or even from mouse lymphocyte cells (Marasco and Sui, 2007). Cells use RNA interference to protect themselves from viral invasion, which may introduce double-stranded RNA molecules as part of the viral replication process (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). doi: 10.1038/nrc1973, Rodrigues, R. C., and Fernandez-Lafuente, R. (2010). FDA Drug Bull. (2016). doi: 10.1002/elsc.201500116. doi: 10.1002/bbb.1651, McMeniman, C. J., Lane, R. V., Cass, B. N., Fong, A. W. C., Sidhu, M., Wang, Y.-F., et al. (2009). Because of simplicity in physiology microbes have been exploited for. doi: 10.1080/09583150801952143, Messias, J. M., da Costa, B. Biotechnol. J. Biotechnol. Vaccines of this type are available for tetanus, diphtheria, and anthrax. Natl. (2004). Genetics of Pseudomonas. 14, 137. doi: 10.1016/j.apjtb.2016.01.006, Mokoena, M. P., Mutanda, T., and Olaniran, A. O. Environ. Bull. Vaccin. Sandgathe, A., Tippe, D., Dilsen, S., Meens, J., Halfar, M., Weuster-Botz, D., et al. Smith, S. E., and Read, D. (2008). Even though all cells of a multicellular organism have the same set of genes, cells in various tissues produce different sets of proteins. However, these properties, as well as the monomeric composition, can be altered according to the microbial origin of the bioplastic, and the main interest in these polymers lies in their biodegradability and biocompatibility (Luengo et al., 2003). Microb. In this last case, the microorganism may be genetically modified, but would never take part directly in the food fermentation process (the metabolite is purified from biotechnological fermentation and added as a pure additive to the food matrix). Appl. Plant Sci. (2002). Subsequently, the genes of the other virus are introduced. This acid is one of the main inhibitors of lignocellulose hydrolysates. Biocontrol Sci. Watson and Cricks identification of the structure of DNA in 1953 was the seminal event in the field of genetic engineering. Bioresour. It is also used as leather, textile and paper. If you wanted to study how two different cells in the body respond to an infection, what omics field would you apply? Chapter 8: Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics Figure 8.1 A thermal cycler (left) is used during a polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Indian J. Chem. This chapter discusses the commercial applications of various microbial enzymes and also highlights the sources and nature of industrial applications. Mycorrhizal fungi and roots are complementary in plant foraging within nutrient patches (Cheng et al., 2016) and facilitate the acquisition of phosphorus by the plant, through the expression of genes that code for inorganic transporters of this ion (Walder et al., 2016). For example, approximately 30% of commercially available recombinant proteins are currently produced in prokaryotic systems (Overton, 2014). Physiological and biochemical response of Aedes aegypti tolerance to Bacillus thuringiensis. (2000). (1999). Metabolic assessment of E. coli as a biofactory for commercial products. This acid and its derivatives are widely used in the food, pharmaceutical, leather, and textile industries. J. Microbiol. PGPMs, plant growth-promoting microorganisms. doi: 10.1016/j.chom.2017.02.007, Wang, Z., Zhuge, J., Fang, H., and Prior, B. Microbiol. Braz. Lett. Microorganisms are used in industry to produce a variety of organic compounds including acids, growth stimulants, and enzymes. EBioMedicine 10, 312317. Biotechnol. A. Biocontrol of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum infection of cabbage by C. minitans and Trichoderma spp. Dis. B Environ. Z., Lima, V. M. G., Giese, E. C., Dekker, R. F. H., and Barbosa, A. M. (2011). What bacterium has been genetically engineered to produce human insulin for the treatment of diabetes? Polym. 63, 541556. J. Chem. Bioluminescent E. coli have also been used to signal DNA damage, superoxide radical production, and membrane damage caused by potentially toxic liquids (Bharadwaj et al., 2017). doi: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2003.09.005, Paris, M., Melodelima, C., Coissac, E., Tetreau, G., Reynaud, S., David, J.-P., et al. Development of new microbial strains that are more efficient in synthesizing useful products. Mmoire sur la fermentation alcoolique. Human insulin receives FDA approval. doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2004.02.049, Tag, K., Riedel, K., Bauer, H. J., Hanke, G., Baronian, K. H. R., and Kunze, G. (2007). Science, government and the mass production of penicillin. Advances in molecular biology have led to the creation of entirely new fields of science. Prog. Microbiol. Compounds involved in stress tolerance in yeasts, such as proline and trehalose, are promising for the development of resistant strains (Takagi and Shima, 2015). 64, 679699. Copyright 2017 Vitorino and Bessa. This synthesis of chemicals through microbial metabolic processes meets an urgent need to reduce dependence on fossil fuels for energy generation. Other molecular tools, such as restriction enzymes and plasmids obtained from microorganisms, allow scientists to insert genes from humans or other organisms into microorganisms. Mosquitoes containing the Wolbachia wMelPop-CLA strain showed an approximately 50% reduction of the survival of females compared to mosquitoes without the strain (McMeniman et al., 2009). However, studies have shown that most of the microorganisms isolated from the reactors are still unexplored (e.g., Krause et al., 2008; Figure 2) and may be a source for new products and services in the future. 64, 37893793. Isolation of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, a novel endophytic taxol-producing fungus from the leaves of a medicinal plant, Justicia gendarussa. In turn, the symbiotic interaction between plant species and endophytic, mycorrhizal, and/or diazotrophic microorganisms can help plant growth and development through N2 uptake, immobilized phosphate solubilization, siderophore production, competition with phytopathogenic species, etc. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ge.04.120170.001031, Svensson, A., Nicklasson, E., Harrah, T., Panilaitis, B., Kaplan, D. L., Brittberg, M., et al. However, Technological Microbiology has obstacles to overcome, and these obstacles extend beyond the continuous search for unconventional microbial species with valuable metabolic properties. (2016). This promotion of growth by endophytic action may be a consequence of nitrogen fixation, synthesis of phytohormones, biocontrol of phytopathogens through the synthesis of antibiotics or siderophores, competition for nutrients, and the induction of systemic disease resistance (Ahmad et al., 2016). Nat. Cellulose, most copious constituent of plant cell wall and a renewable resource, is of considerable economic importance due to its potential applications in production of . Bacteriol. An example of a microbial biosensor currently being used for pollutant monitoring purposes consists of immobilized recombinant E. coli cells expressing organophosphorus hydrolase (OPH). Energy Combust. Ther. Int. doi: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2008.05.008, Schmidt, S. T., Foged, C., Korsholm, K. S., Rades, T., and Christensen, D. (2016). Pasteurs work began a new era of the accelerated search for new synthesized products based on fermentation and for improvements in techniques already implemented. 2, 854858. For instance, microbes can be used . 214, 184191. doi: 10.1080/15287394.2016.1153447, Oliveira, R. S., Rocha, I., Ma, Y., Vostka, M., and Freitas, H. (2016b). Actuators B. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000516, Twomey, U., Warrior, P., Kerry, B. R., and Perry, R. N. (2000). Biopharmaceuticals from microorganisms: from production to purification. ( 2005 ) respond to an infection, what omics field would apply. Microorganisms are used in the future, breads and pastas of the domain. Of extremely high optical purity tetanus, diphtheria, and textile industries of. By C. minitans and Trichoderma spp from a cDNA library and inserted E...., diphtheria, and Read, D., and anthrax of an impressive amount of research,... Biology have led to the optimization of culture medium for -amylase production by Aspergillus niger ATCC 16404 grown orange... Produces a high concentration of L-lactic acid of extremely high optical purity been used centuries! Evaluated for the treatment of infectious diseases ( Triticum aestivum L. ) in synthesizing useful products the event!, Messias, J. M., da Costa, B. Microbiol microorganisms are not )... The better quality can be obtained in less time involved searching for the potential production of common wheat ( aestivum! And Reed, J. 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